Document Type : Review Articles
Authors
1 Research Center for Health Sciences, Institute of Health, Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control,School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
2 Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
Abstract
Background: Rickettsialinfections occur worldwide. Rickettsia spp. are mandatory intracellular Gram-negative bacteria that can cause mild to severe disease.
Objectives:Recently, with increasing international travel to high-risk areas, the risk of rickettsia transmission has increased. These infections are also important because of their possible use as bioterrorism agents. In this study, we investigated arthropod-borne rickettsial diseases.
Methods: This systematic review study was performed based on PRISMA guidelines. All Persian and English language articles published until the end of 2019 were extracted during the search in the scientific databases of Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Science Direct, Google Scholar, Medlib, Irandoc, Magiran, and SID.
Results: A total of 62 studies related to the field of arthropod-borne rickettsial diseases between 1940 and 2020 were included in the systematic review. Rickettsiae are related to arthropods which will act as vectors and reservoirs within the bacteria life cycle. To date, ticks (Acari: Ixodidae), lice (Phtiraptera), and fleas (Siphonaptera) have been identified as the main suitable vectors of rickettsiae. Recently, mosquitoes have been suggested as potential vectors for R. felis.
Conclusion: One of the most important rickettsial diseases in Iran has been typhus. Historically, typhus has been one of the main health problems with a financial effect in Iran; be that as it may, there are constrained data on the prevalence of typhus within the past centuries. In Iran, there were both epidemic and endemic typhus. Health care officials and physicians should always consider the potential risk of typhus outbreaks under certain conditions. Natural disasters, famines, and overcrowded camps increase the risk of transmission of these infectious diseases
Keywords
1.Satjanadumrong J, Robinson MT, Hughes T, Blacksell SD. Distribution and ecological drivers of spotted fever group Rickettsia in Asia. EcoHealth. 2019;1:1-16.
2.Aung AK, Spelman DW, Murray RJ, Graves S, hygiene. Rickettsial infections in Southeast Asia: implications for the local populace and febrile returned travelers. The American journal of tropical medicine. 2014;91(3):451-60.
3.Hoseini Z, Alipour H, Azizi K, Soltani A. Molecular-based survey of Rickettsia spp. and Coxiella burnetii in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from Fars province, southern Iran, during 2017-18. The Open Microbiology Journal. 2020;14(1).
4.Richards AL. Worldwide detection and identification of new and old rickettsiae and rickettsial diseases. FEMS Immunology Medical Microbiology. 2012;64(1):107-10.
5.Kelly DJ, Richards AL, Temenak J, Strickman D, Dasch GA. The past and present threat of rickettsial diseases to military medicine and international public health. Clinical infectious diseases. 2002;34(Supplement_4): S145-S69.
6.Merhej V, Angelakis E, Socolovschi C, Raoult D. Genotyping, evolution, and epidemiological findings of Rickettsia species. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 2014;25:122-37.
7.Sakaguchi S, Sato I, Muguruma H, Kawano H, Kusuhara Y, Yano S, et al. Reemerging murine typhus, Japan. Emerging infectious diseases. 2004;10(5):964.
8.Crump JA, Morrissey AB, Nicholson WL, Massung RF, Stoddard RA, Galloway RL, et al. Etiology of severe non-malaria febrile illness in Northern Tanzania: a prospective cohort study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(7):e2324.
9.Brown LD. Rickettsia felis, Transmission Mechanisms of an Emerging Flea-borne Rickettsiosis: Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College; 2016.
10.Bitam I, Dittmar K, Parola P, Whiting MF, Raoult D. Fleas and flea-borne diseases. International journal of infectious diseases. 2010;14(8):e667-e76.
11.Elfving K, Olsen B, Bergström S, Waldenström J, Lundkvist Å, Sjöstedt A, et al. Dissemination of spotted fever rickettsia agents in Europe by migrating birds. PLoS One. 2010;5(1):e8572.
12.Horta MC, Labruna MB, Durigon EL, Schumaker TT. Isolation of Rickettsia felis in the mosquito cell line C6/36. Applied environmental microbiology 2006;72(2):1705-7.
13.Jado I, Oteo JA, Aldámiz M, Gil H, Escudero R, Ibarra V, et al. Rickettsia monacensis and human disease, Spain. Emerging infectious diseases. 2007;13(9):1405.
14.Raoult D, Roux V. Rickettsioses as paradigms of new or emerging infectious diseases. Clinical microbiology reviews. 1997;10(4):694-719.
15.Richards AL, Jiang J, Omulo S, Dare R, Abdirahman K, Ali A, et al. Human infection with Rickettsia felis, Kenya. Emerging infectious diseases. 2010;16(7):1081.
16.Roux V, Fournier P-E, Raoult D. Differentiation of spotted fever group rickettsiae by sequencing and analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphism of PCR-amplified DNA of the gene encoding the protein rOmpA. Journal of clinical microbiology. 1996;34(9):2058-65.
17.Roux V, Raoult D. Phylogenetic analysis of the genus Rickettsia by 16S rDNA sequencing. Research in Microbiology. 1995;146(5):385-96.
18.Sakamoto JM, Azad AF. Propagation of arthropod-borne Rickettsia spp. in two mosquito cell lines. Applied environmental microbiology 2007;73(20):6637-43.
19.Sekeyova Z, Roux V, Raoult D. Phylogeny of Rickettsia spp. inferred by comparing sequences of 'gene D', which encodes an intracytoplasmic protein. International journal of systematic evolutionary microbiology 2001;51(4):1353-60.
20.Weinert LA, Werren JH, Aebi A, Stone GN, Jiggins FM. Evolution and diversity of Rickettsia bacteria. BMC Biology. 2009;7(1):1-15.
21.Drexler NA, Dahlgren FS, Heitman KN, Massung RF, Paddock CD, Behravesh CB, et al. National surveillance of spotted fever group rickettsioses in the United States, 2008–2012. The American journal of tropical medicine. 2016;94(1):26-34.
22.Moher D, Shamseer L, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, Petticrew M, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Systematic reviews. 2015;4(1):1.
23.von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, Gøtzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. International Journal of Surgery. 2014;12(12):1495-9.
24.Bazyar J, Safarpour H, Daliri S, Karimi A, Safi Keykaleh M, Bazyar M. The prevalence of sexual violence during pregnancy in Iran and the world: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Inj Violence Res. 2018;10(2):63-74.
25.Shpynov S, Fournier P-E, Pozdnichenko N, Gumenuk A, Skiba A. New approaches in the systematics of rickettsiae. New microbes new infections 2018;23:93-102.
26.Thomas S, Alexander W, Gilligan J, Rikihisa Y. The Importance of Rickettsiales Infections. Rickettsiales: Springer International Publishing; 2016. p. 3-21.
27.Azad AF, Beard CB. Rickettsial pathogens and their arthropod vectors. Emerging infectious diseases. 1998;4(2):179.
28.Horta MC, Labruna MB, Pinter A, Linardi PM, Schumaker TT. Rickettsia infection in five areas of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2007;102(7):793-801.
29.Mongkol N, Suputtamongkol Y, Taweethavonsawat P, Foongladda S. Molecular evidence of Rickettsia in human and dog blood in Bangkok. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases 2018;18(6):297-302.
30.Gillespie JJ, Beier MS, Rahman MS, Ammerman NC, Shallom JM, Purkayastha A, et al. Plasmids and rickettsial evolution: insight from Rickettsia felis. PloS one. 2007;2(3):e266-e.
31.Bechah Y, Capo C, Mege J-L, Raoult D. Rickettsial diseases: fromRickettsia–arthropod relationships to pathophysiology and animal models. Future Microbiology. 2008;3(2):223-36.
32.Carrieri M, Tissot-Dupont H, Rey D, Brousse P, Renard H, Obadia Y, et al. Investigation of a Slaughterhouse-Related Outbreak of Q Fever in the French Alps. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 2001;21(1):17-21.
33.Gillespie JJ, Ammerman NC, Beier-Sexton M, Sobral BS, Azad AF. Louse-and flea-borne rickettsioses: biological and genomic analyses. Veterinary research. 2009;40(2):1.
34.Cowan G. Rickettsial diseases: the typhus group of fevers—a review. Postgraduate medical journal. 2000;76(895):269-72.
35.Azad AF, Radulovic S. Pathogenic rickettsiae as bioterrorism agents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2003;990(1):734-8.
36.Richards AL. Worldwide detection and identification of new and old rickettsiae and rickettsial diseases: Figure 1. FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology. 2012;64(1):107-10.
37.Walker DH. Rickettsiae and Rickettsial Infections: The Current State of Knowledge. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2007;45(Supplement_1):S39-S44.
38.Kock RA. Vertebrate reservoirs and secondary epidemiological cycles of vector-borne diseases. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE. 2015;34(1):151-63.
39.Parola P, Socolovschi C, Jeanjean L, Bitam I, Fournier P-E, Sotto A, et al. Warmer weather linked to tick attack and the emergence of severe rickettsioses. PLoS neglected tropical diseases. 2008;2(11):e338-e.
40.Parola P, Paddock CD, Socolovschi C, Labruna MB, Mediannikov O, Kernif T, et al. Update on tick-borne rickettsioses around the world: a geographic approach. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2013;26(4):657-702.
41.Parola P, Raoult D. Ticks and Tickborne Bacterial Diseases in Humans: An Emerging Infectious Threat. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2001;32(6):897-928.
42.Hornok S, Meli ML, Perreten A, Farkas R, Willi B, Beugnet F, et al. Molecular investigation of hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and fleas (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) as potential vectors of rickettsial and mycoplasmal agents. Veterinary Microbiology. 2010;140(1-2):98-104.
43.Dieme C, Bechah Y, Socolovschi C, Audoly G, Berenger J-M, Faye O, et al. Transmission potential of Rickettsia felis infection by Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(26):8088-93.
44.Saraiva DG, Nieri-Bastos FA, Horta MC, Soares HS, Nicola PA, Pereira LCM, et al. Rickettsia amblyommiiInfectingAmblyomma auriculariumTicks in Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil: Isolation, Transovarial Transmission, and Transstadial Perpetuation. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. 2013;13(9):615-8.
45.Jensenius M, Fournier P-E, Kelly P, Myrvang B, Raoult D. African tick bite fever. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2003;3(9):557-64.
46.Parola P, Rovery C, Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Davoust B, Raoult D. Rickettsia slovaca and R. raoultii in tick-borne Rickettsioses. Emerging infectious diseases. 2009;15(7):1105-8.
47.Eremeeva M, Yu X, Raoult D. Differentiation among spotted fever group rickettsiae species by analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphism of PCR-amplified DNA. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1994;32(3):803-10.
48.Abarca K, López J, Acosta-Jamett G, Martínez-Valdebenito C. Rickettsia felisinRhipicephalus sanguineusfrom Two Distant Chilean Cities. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. 2013;13(8):607-9.
49.Cardoso LD, Freitas RN, Mafra CL, Neves CVB, Figueira FCB, Labruna MB, et al. Caracterização de Rickettsia spp. circulante em foco silencioso de febre maculosa brasileira no Município de Caratinga, Minas Gerais, Brasil. Cadernos de Saúde Pública. 2006;22(3):495-501.
50.Ishikura M, Ando S, Shinagawa Y, Matsuura K, Hasegawa S, Nakayama T, et al. Phylogenetic Analysis of Spotted Fever Group Rickettsiae Based on gltA, 17-kDa, and rOmpA Genes Amplified by Nested PCR from Ticks in Japan. Microbiology and Immunology. 2003;47(11):823-32.
51.Oliveira KA, Oliveira LS, Dias CCA, Silva Jr A, Almeida MR, Almada G, et al. Molecular identification of Rickettsia felis in ticks and fleas from an endemic area for Brazilian Spotted Fever. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2008;103(2):191-4.
52.Tsui P-Y, Shaio M-F, Hu K-Y, Weng M-H, Ji D-D, Lien J-C, et al. Molecular Detection and Characterization of Spotted Fever Group Rickettsiae in Taiwan. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2007;77(5):883-90.
53.Reiss-Gutfreund RJ. The Isolation of Rickettsia Prowazeki and Mooseri from Unusual Sources. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1966;15(6):943-9.
54.Medina-Sanchez A. Detection of a Typhus Group Rickettsia in Amblyomma Ticks in the State of Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2005;1063(1):327-32.
55.Typhus fever (Epidemic louse-borne typhus) [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://goo. gl/hEcUzg.
56.Ryan ET, Hill DR, Solomon T, Endy TP, Aronson N. Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Elsevier Health Sciences; 2019.
57.Mumcuogliu KY, Frish K, Sarov B, Manors E, Gross E, Gat Z, et al. Ecological Studies on the Brown Dog Tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Acari: Ixodidae) in Southern Israel and its Relationship to Spotted Fever Group Rickettsiae. Journal of Medical Entomology. 1993;30(1):114-21.
58.Horak IG, Boshoff CR, Cooper DV, Foggin CM, Govender D, Harrison A, et al. Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XLIX. Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting white and black rhinoceroses in southern Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research. 2017;84(1):1-11.
59.McLintock J, Zeini A, Djanbakhsh B. Development of insecticide resistance in body lice in villages of North-Eastern Iran. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 1958;18(4):678.
60.Dehghannejad M, Lotfi A. Typhus disease, a consequence of the occurrence and spread of World War II in Iran. Quarterly Journal of Foreign Relations History. 2010;12(45):51-67.
61.Tayarani B. The Impact of World War II on People's Health. Ganjineh Asnad. 1999;9(1):92-107.
62.Azizi MH, Bahadori M, Azizi F. An Overview of Epidemic Typhus in the World and Iran during the 19th and 20th Centuries. Archives of Iranian Medicine. 2016;19(10):0-.
63.Bodman RI, Stewart IS. Louse-borne relapsing fever in Persia. British medical journal. 1948;1(4545):291.
64.Van Rooyen C, Bowie J, Krikorian K, Hygiene. Typhus research in Egypt, Palestine, Iraq and Iran. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine. 1944;38(2):133-49.
65.Darvishi MM, Youssefi MR, Changizi E, Lima RR, Rahimi MT. A new flea from Iran. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease. 2014;4(2):85-7.
66.Kazemi-Moghaddam V, Dehghani R, Hadei M, Dehqan S, Sedaghat MM, Latifi M, et al. Rodent-borne and rodent-related diseases in Iran. Comparative Clinical Pathology. 2019;28(4):893-905.
67.Walker DH, Herrero-Herrero JI, Ruiz-Beltrán R, Bullon-Sopelana A, Ramos-Hidalgo A. The pathology of fatal Mediterranean spotted fever. American journal of clinical pathology. 1987;87(5):669-72.
68.Mostafavi E, Rastad H, Khalili M. Q fever: an emerging public health concern in Iran. Asian Journal of Epidemiology. 2012;5(3):66-74.
69.Nokhodian Z, Feizi A, Ataei B, Hoseini SG, Mostafavi E. Epidemiology of Q fever in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis for estimating serological and molecular prevalence. Journal of research in medical sciences. 2017;22.
70.Khalili M, Sakhaee E, hygiene. An update on a serologic survey of Q fever in domestic animals in Iran. The American journal of tropical medicine. 2009;80(6):1031-2.
71.Dehghani R, Seyedi H, Dehqan S, Sharifi H. Geographical distribution of mouse and mouse-borne diseases in Iran: a review article. Feyz. 2013;17(2):203-19.
)